Nerja Today

The Spanish Civil War

PRELUDE TO WAR
In the 19th century Spain was in decline as a world power and experiencing great difficulty holding on to its territories in South America. Independent states came into being in Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela and Mexico and to make matters worse, 1898 saw the disastrous Spanish-American War and the loss of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and Cuba.

In 1902, the autocratic Alfonso XIII took power and in 1909 received widespread condemnation for ordering the execution of the radical leader, Ferrer Guardia, in Barcelona. As his autocracy increased, he blocked the introduction of many liberal reforms. He was always in conflict with Spanish politicians and, blamed for defeat in the Moroccan war of 1921, it lead Miguel Primo de Rivera to stage a military coup in 1923.

The constitution was suspended, martial law imposed and a strict system of censorship was put in place. Promising only to stay in power for 90 days, eradicate corruption and regenerate the Spanish economy, he was finally forced to resign in January 1930 when he lost the support of the army. Few reforms took place during this period and his attempts to reduce unemployment consisted mainly of taxing the rich to pay for public works.

In 1931, Alfonso XIII agreed to 'free' democratic elections, the first for almost sixty years. The Spanish people voted overwhelmingly for a republic and Alfonso was advised to go into exile in order to avoid possible unrest and violence. He agreed and left the country on 14th April, 1931.

The provisional government of the Second Republic called a general election in June 1931 and the Socialist Party (PSOE) and other left wing parties won an overwhelming victory. A moderate Republican, Niceto Alcala Zamora, became prime minister and included in his cabinet several radical figures of the time, notably Manuel Azaña, Francisco Largo Caballero and Indalecio Prieto.

One of these, Manuel Azaña, replaced Zamora as prime minister on 16th October 1931. However, his attempted reforms were constantly blocked in the Spanish parliament, despite the support of the Socialist (PSOE) Party. Azaña was also of the firm belief that the Catholic Church was too a great extent responsible for the woes of Spain and its economy and withdrew many of the privileges enjoyed by the Church at that time. In May 1931, religious buildings were burned and he attracted much criticism for his openly passive stance.

A failed military coup on 10th August 1932, led by José Sanjurjo, actually served to rally support for Azaña's ailing government and he even managed to get the Agrarian Reform Bill and the Catalan Statute passed by parliament (The Cortes). Elections in November 1933 elections saw the right-wing CEDA party win 115 seats and, forming a parliamentary alliance with the Radical Party, they spent the next two years demolishing the reforms introduced by Manuel Azaña.

A general strike and an armed uprising in Asturias was the net result. Azaña was accused of encouraging these disturbances and on 7th October was arrested and interned, but through lack of concrete evidence was released on 18th December 1934. In March 1935 the matter was debated in the Cortes but on 6th April 1935 he was acquitted by the Tribunal of Constitutional Guarantees. 

January 1936, one month before scheduled elections, saw the formation of the Popular Front, a coalition of political parties (Socialist Party (PSOE), Communist Party ( PCE), Esquerra Party and the Republican Union Party) with ex-prime minister Manuel Azaña a leading protagonist. The Popular Front advocated the restoration of Catalan autonomy, amnesty for political prisoners, agrarian reform, an end to political blacklists and the payment of damages for property owners who suffered during the revolt of 1934. The Anarchists refused to support the coalition and instead urged people not to vote.

Right-wing groups, including the CEDA and Carlists, formed the National Front. The Falange Española did not 'officially' join, but most of its members supported the aims of the National Front.

In a high turnout, the Spanish people voted on Sunday 16th February 1936. The Popular Front, with 34.3% of the votes and 263 seats out of 473, formed the new government. The National Front polled 33.2% of the 9.8 (out of a possible 13.5) million votes cast. The new government immediately began upsetting the more conservative elements by releasing left-wing prisoners, introducing reforms antagonizing the landed aristocracy, outlawing the Falange Española, granting Catalan autonomy and posting right-wing military leaders - among them one Francisco Franco - to remote locations away from mainland Spain. 

The wealthy, fearful of further measures, transferred vast sums of money out of the country and precipitated an economic decline. This in turn led to a series of strikes in Spain. Niceto Alcala Zamora was ousted as president on 10th May 1936 and replaced by Manuel Azaña. Spanish Army officers, including Emilio Mola, Francisco Franco and José Sanjurjo, began plotting to overthrow the Popular Front government, resulting in the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War on 17th July, 1936.

SPAIN AT WAR
President Manuel Azaña appointed Diego Martinez Barrio as prime minister on 18th July 1936, his first task being to negotiate with the rebels. Emilio Mola, one of the rebel leaders, was subsequently offered the post of Minister of War in the government but he declined the offer. Barrio was sacked and replaced by José Giral who ordered arms to be distributed to left-wing organizations opposing the military uprising. Azaña was actually reluctant to head a government that was trying to militarily defeat another group of Spaniards and attempted to resign. However, he was persuaded to stay on by the Socialist and Communist Parties who saw him as the best hope in dissuading foreign governments from supporting the military insurrection.

Socialists and Communists from all over Europe formed the so-called 'International Brigades' and headed for Spain. 'Volunteers' in these brigades included the likes of George Orwell, Jack Jones, and Oliver Law. The brigades themselves were always led by Communists, which in turn created problems with other Republican groups such as the Workers Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) and the Anarchists.

The Spanish Army at the outbreak of hostilities consisted of two distinct forces, the poorly trained Peninsular Army (120,000 officers and men) and the better trained Army of Africa (34,000 men). 
On 19th July, 1936, General Francisco Franco assumed command of the Army of Africa and organized an airlift to Spain in aircraft owned by the Luftwaffe. There were also two internal paramilitary police forces: in existence, the Civil Guard (69,000 men) and the Assault Guard (30,000 men). The majority chose to join the Nationalist uprising. Although the Republican government managed to maintain the loyalty of about half of the soldiers in the Spanish army, most of the officers chose to join the Nationalist cause.

The two opposing armies were roughly the same in numbers after the arrival of the Army of Africa but after only a few weeks the Nationalist 'rebels' controlled about one-third of Spain. The Nationalists were strong in Galicia, León, Navarre, parts of Aragón, Cádiz, Sevilla, Córdoba, Granada and Huelva.

On 26th August, 1936, the Nationalist authorities introduced conscription, enabling them to recruit some 270,000 men during the next six months.

Mola and Franco saw the speedy capture of Madrid from the Popular Front as essential and the first bombing raids by the Nationalist airforce began on 28th August, 1936. In September of 1936, Lieutenant Colonel Walther Warlimont of the German General Staff arrived as the German commander and military adviser to General Francisco Franco and the following month suggested the German Condor Legion be formed to fight in the Spanish Civil War.

The initial force consisted of three squadrons of Ju-52 bombers; a Fighter Group with three squadrons of He-51 fighters; a Reconnaissance Group with two squadrons of He-99 and He-70 reconnaissance bombers; and a Seaplane Squadron of He-59 and He-60 floatplanes. General Hugo Sperrle was appointed commander of the Condor Legion in November 1936 and his chief of staff was a certain Wolfram von Richthofen, cousin of the First World War 'Red Baron', Manfred von Richthofen. Starting with around 100 aircraft and over 5,000 men, by the end of the Civil War more than 19,000 Germans had fought alongside the Nationalist Army.

20th July - 27th September 1936
THE SIEGE OF THE ALCAZAR

When it became apparent that the uprising in Madrid had failed, the Nationalist supporters in Toledo, 40 miles southwest of the capital, occupied the Military Academy in the Alcazar fortress. The garrison was mainly comprised of local Guardia Civil and Falange and was commanded by the Commandant of the Academy, Colonel Jose Moscardo. The defenders held out for two months against the Republican Militia units besieging them until troops from the Army of Africa, led by Colonel Jose Varela, stormed Toledo. The raising of the siege of the Alcazar enhanced General Franco's reputation.

The El Ferrol naval base in northwest of Spain surrendered to the Nationalists on 21st July 1936 and they acquired a battleship (España), two cruisers (Republica and Almirante Cervera) and a destroyer (Velasco).

On 14th August, 1936, bitter street fighting took place when the Nationalist Army entered the city of Cáceres in Badajoz province. Losses were heavy on both sides and when the Nationalists took control of Cáceres it was widely claimed that over a thousand people were subsequently 'massacred'. 

16th August - 3rd September 1936
THE REPUBLICAN INVASION OF MAJORCA

On 9th August a Republican expeditionary force of Catalan and Valencian troops, commanded by Air Force Captain Alberto Bayo and Guardia Civil Captain Manuel Uribarri, landed on Ibiza quickly overcame the Nationalist garrison. Seven days later, the Catalan troops, led by Captain Bayo, landed on Majorca, and by evening had advanced eight miles inland from their landing place at Porto Cristo. The Nationalist garrison, commanded by Colonel Garcia Ruiz, proved to be much stronger than that on Ibiza and with the help of Italian fighter aircraft and bombers were able to block any further Republican advance.On 3rd September they mounted a counter-attack on the Republican bridgehead and the Catalan troops withdrew to the beaches and re-embarked aboard their ships. 

In September 1936, President Azaña appointed the left-wing socialist, Francisco Largo Caballero as prime minister. He also took over the increasingly important role of war minister. Largo Caballero also brought into his government two left-wing radicals, four anarchists and two communists. Winning the war was top priority and this meant that social reforms went by the board. Largo Caballero soon upset the left-wing elements by introducing conscription, reinstating ranks and insignia into the military and abolishing workers councils. He also established a new police force, the National Republican Guard.

Largo Caballero resisted pressure from the Communist Party to promote its members to senior posts in the government and also refused their demands to suppress the Worker's Party, and as a result the Communists withdrew from the government. Attempting to stabilise the situation, President Manuel Azaña sacked Largo Caballero and Juan Negrin was asked to form a new cabinet. Negrin immediately began appointing members of the Communist Party (PCE) to important military and civilian posts. Communists were also given control of propaganda, finance and foreign affairs. 

By the 1st November 1936, Nationalist troops under General Jose Varela reached the western and southern suburbs of Madrid. Five days later he was joined by General Hugo Sperrle and the Condor Legion and the siege of Madrid had begun. It was to last for almost 3 years. Francisco Largo Caballero and his government left Madrid on 6th November, 1936 and moved to Valencia.

General José Miaja was appointed commander of the Republican Army in Madrid and was instructed to set up a Junta de Defensa (Defence Council) and to defend Madrid 'at all costs'. Miaja's task was helped by the arrival of the International Brigades, the first units reaching Madrid on 8th November. The 11th International Brigade, led by the Soviet General, Emilo Kléber, was to play an important role in the defence of the city. The Thaelmann Battalion, a volunteer unit of mainly German and British Communist Party members, was also deployed to defend the city. On 14th November Buenaventura Durruti arrived in Madrid with his Anarchist Brigade but, within a week of arriving, he was killed during fighting on the outskirts of the city. Durruti's supporters generally believed that he had been murdered by members of the Communist Party. 

On 13th December 1936, Nationalists forces attempted to cut the Madrid-La Coruna road north-east of Madrid but, after suffering heavy losses, the offensive was brought to an end at Christmas. On 5th January 1937, the attack was resumed and during the next four days the Nationalist gained ten kilometres of road and lost around 15,000 men. The International Brigades, defending the road, also suffered heavy losses during this battle. Also in December 1936, Benito Mussolini began to supply the Nationalists with men and equipment, including 30,000 men from the Blue Shirts militia and 20,000 soldiers serving with the Italian Army. By March 1937 these men were incorporated into the Italian Corps.

17th January - 6th February 1937
THE BATTLE FOR MALAGA

After the arrival in Spain of Italian 'volunteers', the Nationalists felt able to mount an offensive on the southern provinces of Republican Spain. Three Nationalist columns converged on Málaga. The Army of the South, led by General Gonzalo Quiepo de Llano, advanced from Granada. From the north-east came forces under the command of Colonel Antonio Munoz and moving down from the North were the Italians, led by General Mario Roatta. Despite the large numbers of Republican troops available to defend Malaga, they were badly organised and were steadily forced to retreat. By 3rd February the attackers reached the outskirts of the city and three days later the Nationalists entered Málaga.

After failing to take Madrid by frontal assault, General Francisco Franco sent a force of 40,000 men, including men from the Army of Africa, with orders to cross the Jarama River and cut the road that linked the city to the rest of Republican Spain.. General José Miaja sent three International Brigades including the Dimitrov Battalion and the British Battalion, to block the advance and on 12th February, at what became known as Suicide Hill, the Republicans suffered heavy casualties forcing Tom Winteringham, the British commander, to order a retreat. However, when the Nationalist forces advanced up Suicide Hill they were routed by Republican machine-gun fire. On the right flank, the Nationalists forced the Dimitrov Battalion to retreat, enabling the Nationalists to virtually surround the British Battalion. Under heavy fire the British, now numbering only 160 out of the original 600, established defensive positions along a sunken road and the Nationalist Army, reluctant to attack again, retreated.

General Franco was under pressure from Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini to achieve a quick victory by taking Madrid and eventually decided to use 30,000 Italians and 20,000 legionnaires to attack Guadalajara, forty miles northeast of the capital. The Italian Corps took Guadalajara on 8th March and began moving rapidly towards Madrid. Four days later the Republican Army, backed by Soviet tanks, counter-attacked and the Italians suffered heavy losses and those still left alive were forced to retreat on 17th March. The Republicans also captured documents which proved that the Italians were regular soldiers and not volunteers. However, the Non-Intervention Committee refused to accept this evidence.

31st March - 19th June 1937
THE BATTLE FOR BILBAO

The Nationalists forces in the North, led by General Emilio Mola, began an offensive against Basque forces in Vizcaya, the objective being the capture of the Basque stronghold of Bilbao. The Basques, led by General Francisco Llano de la Encomienda, were poorly armed and soon gave ground. The towns of Durango and Guernica surrendered on 28th April after suffering heavy bombing by units of the German Condor Legion. After the death of General Mola in an air crash on 3rd June, General Fidel Davila took command of the Nationalist forces and by 11th June the Basques had withdrawn behind the 'Ring of Iron' defences around Bilbao. These proved to be rather ineffective, however, when subjected to heavy artillery bombardment. Under cover of the bombardment the Nationalists breached the outer defences and the 'Ring of Iron' collapsed. On the night of 13th June most of the civilian inhabitants of Bilbao were evacuated and, on 18th June, the last units of the Basque army, now led by General Mariano Gamir Ulibarri, abandoned the city. The Nationalists entered Bilbao the next day.

Throughout the Spanish Civil War the National Confederation of Trabajo (CNT), the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) and the Worker's Party (POUM) played an important role in running the city of Barcelona and this caused conflict with other left-wing groups in the city such as the Union General de Trabajadores (UGT), the Catalan Socialist Party (PSUC) and the Communist Party (PCE). On the 3rd May 1937, Rodriguez Salas, Chief of Police, ordered the Civil Guard and Assault Guard to take over the Telephone Exchange operated by the CNT. Members of the CNT in the Telephone Exchange were armed and refused to give up the building. Members of the CNT, FAI and POUM became convinced that this was the start of an attack on them by the UGT, PSUC and the PCE and that night barricades were built all over the city.

Fighting broke out on the 4th May. Later the same day, anarchist ministers Federica Montseny and Juan Garcia Oliver arrived in Barcelona to negotiate a ceasefire. When this proved unsuccessful, Juan Negrin, Vicente Uribe and Jesus Hernández called on Francisco Largo Caballero to use government troops to takeover the city, despite fears that this action would breach Catalan autonomy. On 6th May death squads assassinated a number of prominent anarchists in their homes and the following day over 6,000 Assault Guards arrived from Valencia and took control of Barcelona. It is estimated that as many as 400 people were killed during what became known as the 'May Riots'.

The May Riots were damaging to the Popular Front government and, under extreme pressure, President Manuel Azaña asked Juan Negrin, a communist sympathiser linked to Joseph Stalin, to form a new government. Negrin's government attempted to bring the Anarchist Brigades under the control of the Republican Army. The Anarcho-Syndicalists resisted at first, but when the government made the decision to only pay and supply militias that subjected themselves to a unified command structure, they relented

6th - 26th July 1937
THE BATTLE OF BRUNETE

Republican troops around Madrid went on to the offensive andGeneral Jose Miaja ordered two Republican Corps (led by Generals Juan Modesto and Enrique Jurado) to advance southwards towards Brunete. This would cut off the Nationalist forces besieging Madrid from the West. Their initial thrust captured Brunete and drove a 5 mile wedge into the Nationalist front-line. The Nationalist armies under General Jose Varela rallied and mounted a counter-attack that forced the Republicans almost all the way back to their original positions.

The Asturias campaign in September 1937 saw the Condor Legion experiment with a new bombing technique, dropping all bombs from all planes at the same moment. This became known as 'carpet bombing'.

15th December 1937 - 20th February 1938
THE BATTLE OF TERUEL

The Republican Army launched an offensive to capture Teruel in an effort to pre-empt a Nationalist attack against Catalonia. Two Republican armies (led by Generals Hernandez Sarabia and Leopoldo Menendez) advanced on Teruel and by nightfall on 15th December had surrounded the city. The garrison, commanded by Colonel Rey d'Harcourt, held out until 8th January but high casualties and lack of supplies then forced them to surrender. On 29th December General Franco ordered Generals Jose Varela and Antonio Aranda to counter-attack and relieve the defenders but the appalling winter weather hampered their advance and d'Harcourt had surrendered before they could raise the siege.

The Republicans were in danger of being besieged in Teruel themselves. On 7th February Nationalist cavalry attacked to the north of the city and forced the Republican units to retreat and by 17th February Moroccan troops (led by General Juan Yague) had crossed the River Alfambra. Three days later the Nationalists had succeeded in almost surrounding the city and the Republican armies were forced to retreat along the Valencia road to the south-east. The Nationalists then reoccupied Teruel.

In April 1938 the Nationalist Army broke through Republican defences and reached the sea, prompting General Franco to redirect his troops towards Valencia with the objective of encircling Madrid. Negrin, attempting to relieve the pressure on the Spanish capital, ordered an attack across the River Ebro. General Juan Modesto, a member of the Communist Party (PCE), was placed in charge of the offensive which involved over 80,000 Republican troops, including the 15th International Brigade and the British Battalion, and began crossing the river on 25th July. They then headed towards Corbera and Gandesa.

On 26th July the Republican Army attempted to capture Hill 481, a key position at Gandesa and well protected with barbed wire, trenches and bunkers. The Republicans suffered heavy casualties and after six days were forced to retreat to Hill 666 on the Sierra Pandols where they successfully defended the hill from a Nationalist offensive on 23rd September. Casualties on both sides were heavy. The very next day, Juan Negrin announced that the International Brigades would be unilaterally withdrawn from Spain and, that night the 15th Brigade and the British Battalion moved back across the River Ebro and began their journey out of the country.

The rest of the Republican Army remained and had to endure continuous attacks from the Condor Legion. General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano brought forward 500 cannon which fired an average of 13,500 rounds a day at the Republicans and by the middle of November the Republicans were forced to retreat. The battle of Ebro had cost the Nationalist Army 6,500 dead and nearly 30,000 wounded but, although the worst casualties of the war, it finally destroyed the Republican Army as an effective fighting force.

Juan Negrin tried to gather the support of western governments by announcing his plan to decollectivize industries and on 1st May 1938 published a thirteen-point program that included the promise of full civil and political rights and freedom of religion. In August 1938 President Manuel Azaña attempted to oust Juan Negrin. However, no longer having the power or influence he once commanded, the government, and Negrin, survived.

23rd December 1938 - 26th January 1939
THE BATTLE FOR BARCELONA

The Republic was cut into two and the Nationalists launched an offensive against Catalonia. Six Nationalist armies, on a front stretching from the Pyrenees to South of the River Ebro, moved forward and quickly proved too much for the already exhausted Republicans who retreated towards Barcelona. After the fall of Borjas Blancas on 4th January, the retreat turned into a rout. Tarragona surrendered on 14th January and by 24th January the Nationalists were within 5km of Barcelona. The Government, led by Juan Negrin, fled to Gerona. The Republican troops in Barcelona continued to maintain a token resistance until 26th January, when the city finally surrendered.

On 27th February, 1939, the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain recognized the Nationalist government headed by General Francisco Franco. Manuel Azaña resigned from office, stating that the war was lost and that he did not want Spaniards to make anymore useless sacrifices.

Juan Negrin promoted communist leaders to senior posts in the army and Segismundo Casado, commander of the Republican Army of the Centre, became convinced that Negrin was planning a communist coup. On 4th March, with the support of the socialist leader Julián Besteiro and disillusioned anarchist leaders, Casedo established an anti-Negrin National Defence Junta.

José Miaja in Madrid joined the rebellion on 6th March by ordering the arrests of Communists in the city and Negrin, about to leave for France, ordered Luis Barceló, commander of the First Corps to try and regain control of the capital. Fierce fighting took place for several days before narchist troops under Cipriano Mera managed to defeat the First Corps. Barceló was captured and executed.

Segismundo Casado tried to negotiate a peace settlement with General Francisco Franco. Members of the Republican Army still left alive were no longer willing to fight and the Nationalist Army entered Madrid virtually unopposed on 27th March. Four days later General Franco announced the end of the Spanish Civil War.

FASCISM COMES TO SPAIN
General Franco established a fascist government and on 7th April 1938 joined the Anti-Comintern Pact. At the outbreak of the Second World War Franco declared Spanish neutrality. Adolf Hitler tried very hard to get Franco to change his mind and during these negotiations Franco demanded that any postwar settlement should give Spain control of Gibraltar, French Morocco, a portion of Algeria and parts of Africa. But Franco's main demand was for Germany to fully compensate Spain for the cost of any British blockade of the country and this became the stumbling block, Hitler being in no position to take on such a burden. The negotiations ended, but Franco did agree to provide logistical and intelligence support to Germany and promised to send a volunteer force, the Spanish Blue Division, to help the fight against communism in Europe.

SECOND WORLD WAR
After the defeat of France in May 1940, Hitler resumed negotiations with Franco and the two men met at Hendaye on 23rd October 1940. Hitler's main request was for his troops to be allowed to travel through Spain to link up with an airborne assault on Gibraltar. Franco, believing Germany would not win a long war, refused and then asked for arms so Spain could capture Gibraltar. Afterwards Hitler apparently stated that he would rather visit the dentist and have his teeth removed than have another meeting with Franco. General Franco considered invading Gibraltar but decided against such a move after being informed that such action would result in British forces taking the Canary Islands. In October 1943, Franco recalled the Spanish Blue Division from the Soviet Union and, convinced that the Axis powers would be defeated, began to openly support the Allies in the war with Germany. 

STATISTICS
The following are believed to be the approximate casualty figures:

Total deaths from all causes: 500,000 - 1,000,000
Combat related deaths: 200,000 - 110,000 Republicans and 90,000 Nationalists 
Nationalist Army executions: 75,000+
Republican Army executions: 55,000.+
Foreign soldiers fighting for the Nationalists: 5,300 (4,000 Italians, 300 Germans, 1,000 others).
International Brigades (Republican): 4,900 (2,000 Germans, 1,000 French, 900 Americans, 500 British and 500 others). In total, some 50 different nationalities fought in the International Brigades.

Around 10,000 Spaniards were killed in bombing raids. 

The economic blockade of Republican controlled areas caused malnutrition in the civilian population n and resulted in the deaths of possibly 25,000 people. 

Post war it is believed that the General Francisco Franco ordered the executions of as many as100,000 Republican prisoners and it is estimated that another 35,000 Republicans died in concentration camps in the years following the war.